A Biblical Theology of the Testament of Moses
1. The Testament of Moses in Context
The Testament of Moses (T. Mos.) is a nonbiblical and pseudepigraphical text that expands the farewell words of Moses to Joshua in Deuteronomy 31:7–8. It belongs to the same genre as the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, where a dying figure commissions his heirs with instruction, warning, and hope. Like the testaments of Levi or Judah, this work blends history, prophecy, and exhortation, placing later Jewish concerns into the mouth of Moses.
The work survives only in one incomplete Latin manuscript discovered in the Ambrosian Library of Milan in 1861. Scholars believe the Latin is a translation of a lost Greek copy, which itself may have been translated from an original Hebrew or Aramaic composition. The text likely emerged between the first century BC and the first century AD within Palestinian Judaism.
Though fragmentary, the Testament of Moses gives insight into how Jewish communities during the Second Temple period interpreted their past, their struggles, and their hopes for the last days.
2. Manuscript and Provenance
The Latin manuscript dates from the fifth or sixth century AD, but scholars generally agree the composition is far older. Internal evidence suggests that the Testament was written after the Babylonian exile but before the destruction of the Second Temple in AD 70. Its critique of corrupt priestly leaders aligns with Jewish discontent toward the Hasmonean dynasty, suggesting a first-century BC or early first-century AD date.
The text also shows knowledge of biblical traditions, Jubilees, and Daniel. For example, the hymn in chapter 10 echoes Daniel 12, with its vision of resurrection and divine deliverance. This situates the Testament firmly within the apocalyptic worldview that flourished at Qumran and in broader Jewish eschatological reflection.
3. Content and Structure
The Testament opens with Moses entrusting Joshua with the sacred writings and the law (T. Mos. 1.16–18). Joshua is instructed to divide the land and establish Israel’s kingdom (T. Mos. 2.2). From there, the narrative becomes a sweeping retelling of Israel’s history, anticipating temple corruption, exile, restoration, and renewed struggles.
Its main structural elements include:
The Charge to Joshua – Moses passes on the books of the law and his final exhortations.
Historical Retelling – Israel’s story from the Judges through exile, reflecting prophetic critiques (T. Mos. 2–5).
Condemnation of Leaders – A strong rebuke of evil rulers and priests, with particular criticism of the Hasmoneans (T. Mos. 6).
Taxo the Levite – A mysterious figure who exhorts Israel to fasting, obedience, and endurance during persecution (T. Mos. 9).
Eschatological Hope – Moses foresees the appearance of the kingdom of God across creation and the visitation of the “Heavenly One” (T. Mos. 10).
Exhortation and Encouragement – Moses encourages Joshua to “be strong,” echoing the biblical charge (Deut 31:7; Josh 1:9), and reassures him of God’s faithfulness before the manuscript abruptly ends.
Though incomplete, the Testament presents a coherent vision: God’s people will face corruption and suffering, but divine intervention and covenant faithfulness will prevail.
4. Ethical and Prophetic Concerns
Like other testaments, the Testament of Moses blends ethics and prophecy. It looks back on Israel’s repeated sins, from idolatry to temple impurity, while warning about future apostasy under wicked leaders. These warnings are not merely historical commentary but are framed as lessons for covenant faithfulness.
The figure of Taxo the Levite embodies this ethical resistance. He calls the people to fasting, separation from idolatry, and obedience to God’s commandments, even when persecution forces them to flee into caves. This recalls prophetic figures such as Elijah, who also withdrew to the wilderness to remain faithful to God (1 Kings 19:9). In this way, the Testament urges readers to endure suffering with loyalty to the covenant.
5. Eschatology and the Last Days
The Testament is deeply concerned with the last days. In chapter 10, Moses declares: “The kingdom will appear throughout his whole creation.” This vision is universal and anticipates not merely a national restoration but a cosmic renewal. The “Heavenly One’s visitation” described with imagery drawn from Daniel and other prophets anticipates divine intervention to overthrow wickedness and vindicate the righteous.
At the same time, the eschatology is not merely future-oriented. Like other Jewish apocalyptic works, it emphasizes present obedience as preparation for the coming kingdom. The people are called to reject compromise, endure persecution, and live faithfully in the covenant while awaiting God’s deliverance.
6. The Testament of Moses and Jude 9
A key question concerns the relationship between the Testament of Moses and Jude 9, which mentions the archangel Michael contending with the devil over the body of Moses. Since the extant manuscript of the Testament breaks off before Moses’ death, we do not know whether this tradition was originally included.
Ancient Christian writers often attributed the Michael tradition to the Assumption of Moses, a related work sometimes confused with the Testament of Moses. Gelasius of Cyzicus even quotes passages from the Testament under the title Assumption of Moses, suggesting the two works may have been joined or confused in transmission. While the issue remains unresolved, the Testament remains one of the most likely candidates behind Jude’s cryptic reference.
This connection highlights how early Christians valued such Jewish writings as background to the New Testament. Even if the story of Michael and the devil is not preserved in our fragment, Jude’s allusion reminds us that the last days were seen as a cosmic conflict in which God’s angels contend for his people.
7. Gospel Connections
For Christians, the Testament of Moses has striking resonances with the Gospel.
Preservation of the Word – Just as Moses entrusted Joshua with the books of the law, so Christ entrusted his apostles with the Gospel (John 17:6–8).
Endurance in Persecution – Taxo’s call to fasting and obedience parallels Jesus’ command to take up the cross and follow him (Matthew 16:24).
Eschatological Kingdom – The Testament’s hope that “the kingdom will appear throughout creation” finds fulfillment in Christ’s proclamation that the kingdom of God is at hand (Mark 1:15).
Heavenly Visitation – The “Heavenly One” in chapter 10 anticipates Christ’s return in glory to judge the nations (Matthew 25:31–32).
Strength for Leadership – Moses’ charge to Joshua echoes Christ’s encouragement to his disciples: “Take heart; I have overcome the world” (John 16:33).
Thus, while rooted in Jewish apocalyptic expectation, the Testament ultimately points toward Christ’s kingship and the fulfillment of covenant hope in the Gospel.
8. Covenant Faith and Hope for the People of God
The Testament concludes with Moses encouraging Joshua not to fear but to trust in God’s faithfulness. This theme runs throughout Scripture: God calls leaders to courage because his covenant promises cannot fail. From Joshua’s conquest to Christ’s great commission, the people of God are sustained not by human strength but by divine presence.
In this way, the Testament reflects the larger biblical theology of the last days. God’s people will suffer under corrupt leaders and foreign powers, yet they are called to remain faithful, awaiting the kingdom that will encompass all creation. For Christians, this hope is fulfilled in Christ, whose resurrection inaugurates the new age and whose return will consummate God’s kingdom.
Conclusion
The Testament of Moses is a powerful example of Second Temple Jewish literature that blends history, prophecy, and eschatology. Though fragmentary, it exhorts God’s people to guard the covenant, endure persecution, and hope for the last days when the kingdom will be revealed across creation. Its vision of cosmic renewal, priestly resistance, and divine visitation anticipates the Gospel, where Christ fulfills the covenant promises and secures the kingdom of God for Jew and Gentile alike.
In every age, the charge remains the same: “Be strong and courageous … for it is the Lord your God who goes with you” (Deut 31:6).
Bible Verses Related to the Testament of Moses
Deuteronomy 31:7–8 – “Be strong and courageous, for you shall go with this people into the land.”
Joshua 1:9 – “Be strong and courageous. Do not be frightened, for the Lord your God is with you.”
Daniel 12:2 – “Many of those who sleep in the dust … shall awake, some to everlasting life.”
Malachi 3:1 – “The Lord whom you seek will suddenly come to his temple.”
Matthew 16:24 – “If anyone would come after me, let him deny himself and take up his cross.”
Mark 1:15 – “The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God is at hand.”
John 16:33 – “In the world you will have tribulation. But take heart; I have overcome the world.”
Jude 9 – “Michael the archangel … disputed with the devil about the body of Moses.”
Hebrews 3:5–6 – “Moses was faithful in all God’s house … but Christ is faithful as a son.”
Revelation 21:2–3 – “I saw the holy city, new Jerusalem, coming down out of heaven from God.”
