Historical Theology: Modern Theology (18th–19th Century)
1. Defining Modern Theology in Historical Context
Modern theology of the 18th–19th centuries marks a major shift in Christian thought. The Enlightenment and the rise of modern philosophy challenged traditional views of revelation, authority, and church life. Theology broadened into specialized disciplines — Old and New Testament studies, dogmatics, church history, and practical theology — each seeking to apply critical methods to the study of faith.
What distinguished modern theology was the attempt to understand religion and the relationship with God apart from divine revelation. Instead of beginning with God’s Word as authoritative, many theologians sought to reinterpret revelation in light of human religious experience and reason.
2. The Enlightenment and Natural Religion
The Enlightenment placed human reason at the center of knowledge, influencing how theology was conceived. The idea of natural religion — truths about God derived from reason and observation apart from Scripture — gained prominence.
Theologians like Johann Franz Buddeus and Jean-Alphonse Turretini sought to reconcile revelation with rational religion. In this framework, revelation became secondary, understood in light of universal religious truths accessible to reason.
This shift raised a fundamental question: is theology primarily about God’s self-revelation, or about humanity’s religious experience? The Bible insists on the former: “The secret things belong to the Lord our God, but the things that are revealed belong to us” (Deuteronomy 29:29).
3. Schleiermacher and the Feeling of Absolute Dependence
No figure looms larger in 19th-century theology than Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834), often called the father of modern Protestant theology.
He defined religion as the “feeling of absolute dependence,” anchoring Christian faith in human experience rather than external revelation.
He saw Christianity as the highest form of religious consciousness, not necessarily because of its unique revelation but because of its mature development of dependence on God.
In his The Christian Faith, he presented theology as the systematic study of the religious experience of the Christian community.
Schleiermacher’s ideas shaped generations of theologians, but they also blurred the distinction between Christian revelation and general human religion. The Gospel risks being reduced to subjective feeling rather than the objective proclamation of Christ crucified and risen (1 Corinthians 1:23).
4. The Rise of Neo-Protestantism and “Religionism”
The 19th century saw the rise of what some call Neo-Protestantism or “religionism.” This trend emphasized religion as a universal human phenomenon and sought to place Christianity within that broader framework.
Key features included:
Experience over revelation — Theological truth was grounded in human consciousness.
Optimism about reason — Faith was harmonized with rational philosophy.
Historical consciousness — Christianity was studied as one religion among many, with emphasis on its development.
While these moves gave theology academic respectability, they often undermined the uniqueness of Christ and the authority of Scripture. The danger was a theology that spoke of God in general but lost sight of the Gospel’s particular claims: “There is salvation in no one else” (Acts 4:12).
5. Historical Criticism and the Bible
The modern period also witnessed the rise of historical-critical methods in biblical studies. Scholars began analyzing Scripture through the lens of history, language, and culture, often treating the Bible as a human document rather than divinely inspired revelation.
Old Testament studies emphasized sources and redaction.
New Testament studies questioned authorship and historicity.
The miraculous elements of Scripture were frequently reinterpreted as myth or symbol.
While critical study brought valuable insights into the historical setting of Scripture, it sometimes left behind the conviction that “all Scripture is breathed out by God” (2 Timothy 3:16). The challenge of modern theology was how to affirm both the human and divine dimensions of the Bible.
6. Responses to Modern Theology
Not all 18th–19th century theologians embraced religionism. Several responses emerged:
Confessional Protestantism defended Scripture’s authority and traditional doctrines, anticipating the later evangelical movement.
Roman Catholic theology affirmed tradition and the magisterium as safeguards against liberal trends.
Revival movements such as Methodism emphasized personal conversion and holiness, countering the tendency to reduce faith to intellectual or cultural categories.
These responses highlight the enduring truth that the Gospel is not merely religious sentiment but the power of God for salvation (Romans 1:16).
7. The Gospel and the Tension of Modern Theology
The central issue of modern theology was the relationship between revelation and human reason. Does God’s Word shape human understanding, or does human understanding shape how we read God’s Word?
Modern theology often chose the latter, yet the Gospel demands the former. The cross of Christ confronts human wisdom (1 Corinthians 1:18–25). The resurrection is not merely a symbol of renewal but a historical event that secures eternal life (1 Corinthians 15:17–20).
Thus, while modern theology raised important questions about experience, history, and culture, it sometimes forgot that theology must begin with God’s self-revelation in Christ.
8. Legacy of 18th–19th Century Theology
The legacy of modern theology is complex.
Positively, it broadened theology into specialized disciplines and sharpened historical study. It took seriously the role of culture and human experience in shaping faith.
Negatively, it often reduced the Gospel to human feeling or cultural expression, diminishing the authority of Scripture and the uniqueness of Christ.
For today, historical theology helps us learn from both the insights and the errors of this period. The church must value reason, history, and experience, but always under the authority of God’s Word.
Conclusion: Holding Revelation Above Religion
Modern theology in the 18th–19th centuries reminds us of a perennial temptation: to reshape the Gospel to fit human categories. Yet the Bible insists that God’s revelation defines true religion, not the other way around.
For Christians, the task of theology is not merely to analyze religious experience but to proclaim Christ and Him crucified, applying His Word to every age. The insights of modern theology must therefore be engaged critically, always tested by the Scriptures that testify to Christ.
As Jesus prayed, “Sanctify them in the truth; your word is truth” (John 17:17). The church today must remember this as it continues the task of theology in a world shaped by reason, experience, and cultural change.
Bible Verses on Revelation, Reason, and the Gospel
“The secret things belong to the Lord our God, but the things that are revealed belong to us and to our children forever.” (Deuteronomy 29:29)
“The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom, and the knowledge of the Holy One is insight.” (Proverbs 9:10)
“All Scripture is breathed out by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness.” (2 Timothy 3:16)
“The word of the Lord remains forever. And this word is the good news that was preached to you.” (1 Peter 1:25)
“The natural person does not accept the things of the Spirit of God, for they are folly to him.” (1 Corinthians 2:14)
“For the word of the cross is folly to those who are perishing, but to us who are being saved it is the power of God.” (1 Corinthians 1:18)
“For Jews demand signs and Greeks seek wisdom, but we preach Christ crucified.” (1 Corinthians 1:22–23)
“There is salvation in no one else, for there is no other name under heaven given among men by which we must be saved.” (Acts 4:12)
“So faith comes from hearing, and hearing through the word of Christ.” (Romans 10:17)
“Sanctify them in the truth; your word is truth.” (John 17:17)
