How Does Biblical Theology Respond to Enlightenment-Era Critical Approaches?
The Enlightenment era brought sweeping intellectual changes to the Western world, reshaping how many approached Scripture. Reason, skepticism toward tradition, and a shift toward methodological naturalism led to a reevaluation of the Bible—not as divine revelation, but as a purely human document. Biblical theology as a discipline emerged during this period, developing along two distinct paths. One embraced Enlightenment presuppositions and severed itself from historic Christian belief. The other sought to uphold Scripture’s divine authority and read it along the lines of its unfolding redemptive storyline.
Understanding these two trajectories—and how faithful biblical theology responds to Enlightenment critical approaches—is essential for grasping the discipline’s role today in guarding the unity of God’s Word and pointing to the Gospel of Christ.
1. Recognizing the Impact of Enlightenment Thinking on Scripture
The Enlightenment (17th–18th centuries) emphasized human reason as the primary authority for truth. In biblical studies, this led to a growing suspicion of supernatural claims and a rejection of divine revelation as a source of knowledge.
For Scripture, the result was profound. Many scholars began to approach the Bible “as any other book,” limiting interpretation to what could be explained through natural causes. The miraculous events of the Bible were questioned, and the unity of Scripture’s message was often dismissed as an illusion constructed by later editors.
This mindset stood in stark contrast to the biblical self-witness: “All Scripture is breathed out by God” (2 Timothy 3:16), given through the Spirit and authoritative for teaching and correction.
2. Identifying the Illegitimate Path of Enlightenment Biblical Theology
Johann Philipp Gabler’s 1787 address is often cited as the formal beginning of “biblical theology” as a distinct discipline. Gabler distinguished between biblical theology (what the biblical authors meant in their historical context) and dogmatic theology (how those ideas apply today). While this might seem reasonable, Gabler’s framework was grounded in Enlightenment rationalism.
This “classic liberal biblical theology” applied historical-critical methods that often treated Scripture’s claims about God as non-binding theological opinions. The result was a fragmented reading of the Bible, emphasizing diversity over unity and downplaying the Bible’s overarching story of redemption.
This illegitimate path:
Rejected the supernatural origin of Scripture.
Treated theological claims as historically bound and culturally conditioned.
Prioritized human reason over divine revelation.
3. Tracing the Legitimate Path of Biblical Theology
In contrast, the legitimate path maintained that Scripture is the inspired, authoritative Word of God. Geerhardus Vos, often called the father of Reformed biblical theology, championed an approach that began with the biblical text itself and traced God’s progressive revelation through history.
This approach:
Reads the Bible within its own redemptive-historical framework.
Recognizes both the diversity and unity of Scripture.
Sees Christ as the culmination of God’s revelation.
The legitimate path does not ignore historical context or literary features; rather, it interprets them within the framework of divine authorship and the Bible’s own claims about itself.
4. Affirming the Unity and Diversity of Scripture
A faithful biblical theology acknowledges both the variety of genres, authors, and historical contexts in Scripture, and the overarching unity of its message. This unity is grounded in God Himself, who “spoke by the prophets” (Hebrews 1:1) and in “these last days… has spoken to us by his Son” (Hebrews 1:2).
The Enlightenment’s illegitimate path emphasized diversity to the point of fragmentation, seeing no consistent storyline from Genesis to Revelation. The legitimate path sees diversity as part of the richness of God’s revelation, but always within the framework of the unfolding plan of redemption.
5. Maintaining a High View of Scripture
A key element of the legitimate response to Enlightenment criticism is holding to a high view of Scripture. This means affirming its inspiration, inerrancy, and authority.
Passages such as Psalm 19:7–8 (“The law of the LORD is perfect, reviving the soul”) and 2 Peter 1:21 (“Men spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit”) anchor the conviction that Scripture is not merely human words but divine communication.
This conviction shapes how biblical theology operates—it is not merely a historical or literary exercise, but a theological discipline that seeks to hear God’s voice through His written Word.
6. Responding to the Historical-Critical Method
The historical-critical method that emerged during the Enlightenment had both strengths and dangers. Its strength lay in careful attention to historical context, languages, and literary forms. Its danger lay in its presupposition that God’s supernatural action could not be assumed or affirmed.
Biblical theology responds by valuing historical study, but refusing to adopt naturalistic presuppositions. It sees historical context as a servant to interpretation, not as a master that dictates what can or cannot be true.
7. Holding Fast to the Christ-Centered Focus
One of the most significant differences between Enlightenment-critical approaches and faithful biblical theology is the role of Christ. Enlightenment readings often reduce Jesus to a moral teacher or political figure. Biblical theology insists that Jesus is the climax of the entire biblical narrative—foretold in the Old Testament, revealed in the Gospels, and reigning over His church until the consummation of all things.
As Jesus Himself said, “Everything written about me in the Law of Moses and the Prophets and the Psalms must be fulfilled” (Luke 24:44).
8. Guarding the Gospel Through Canonical Reading
Faithful biblical theology answers Enlightenment skepticism by reading Scripture in its canonical context. This guards the unity of the Gospel message—creation, fall, redemption, and new creation—and keeps the church from drifting into theological error or moralistic reductionism.
Such an approach also equips believers to defend the truth of the Gospel against the fragmented readings inherited from Enlightenment rationalism.
9. Equipping the Church for Faithful Witness
By resisting the illegitimate path and embracing the legitimate one, biblical theology strengthens preaching, teaching, and discipleship. It reminds the church that the Bible is not simply a record of religious ideas, but the living Word of God, “sharper than any two-edged sword” (Hebrews 4:12).
This conviction shapes how believers live out their faith, grounding them in the hope of God’s unchanging promises and preparing them for the return of Christ.
10. Anticipating the Consummation of God’s Plan
Finally, biblical theology’s legitimate path keeps believers looking ahead to the completion of God’s redemptive work. By tracing the storyline from creation to new creation, it assures us that history is moving toward the day when Christ will make all things new (Revelation 21:5).
In this way, biblical theology not only answers Enlightenment criticism but also fuels the church’s mission and hope in the present age.
Bible Verses on the Authority and Unity of Scripture
2 Timothy 3:16 – “All Scripture is breathed out by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness.”
Hebrews 1:1–2 – “Long ago, at many times and in many ways, God spoke to our fathers by the prophets, but… he has spoken to us by his Son.”
2 Peter 1:21 – “Men spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit.”
Psalm 19:7 – “The law of the LORD is perfect, reviving the soul.”
Luke 24:44 – “Everything written about me in the Law of Moses and the Prophets and the Psalms must be fulfilled.”
John 5:39 – “It is they that bear witness about me.”
Isaiah 40:8 – “The grass withers, the flower fades, but the word of our God will stand forever.”
Acts 20:27 – “I did not shrink from declaring to you the whole counsel of God.”
Romans 15:4 – “Whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction…”
Revelation 21:5 – “Behold, I am making all things new.”
