Political Theology: Church and State Relations (Models of Interaction Across History)
Few theological questions have had as lasting an impact on Christian thought and practice as the relationship between church and state. From the earliest days of persecution under Rome to the Reformation debates over authority, the question of how Christians are to understand civil government and the spiritual authority of the church has been central to political theology.
The theology of church and state relations recognizes both as divinely instituted, but with distinct purposes. The state exists for the preservation of order and justice, while the church exists for the proclamation of the gospel and the care of souls. Throughout history, different models of interaction have emerged—sometimes blending church and state together, at other times keeping them sharply distinct. The witness of Scripture, however, guides believers to navigate this tension with wisdom, recognizing Christ as Lord over both.
1. Biblical Foundations of Church and State
The foundation of any theology of church and state begins with the words of Jesus: “Render to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s, and to God the things that are God’s” (Matthew 22:21). Here Jesus affirms both the legitimacy of earthly governments and the supreme authority of God.
Paul further develops this in Romans 13:1–7, teaching that governing authorities are appointed by God to bear the sword and uphold justice. Similarly, Peter urges believers to honor the emperor while fearing God (1 Peter 2:13–17). These passages affirm that civil government is not an enemy of God’s people but part of His design for human society.
At the same time, obedience to the state is not absolute. When authorities demand disobedience to God, the apostles insist, “We must obey God rather than men” (Acts 5:29). This tension creates the foundation of Christian political theology: respect for government as God’s servant, combined with ultimate allegiance to Christ as King.
2. Historical Models of Church–State Interaction
Across Christian history, different models of interaction between church and state have shaped theology and practice:
Theocracy: In some settings, rulers attempted to create a society fully governed by divine law, blending church and state into a single authority. While Israel in the Old Testament functioned as a theocracy under God’s covenant, attempts to replicate this in Christian history often distorted the gospel into political dominance.
Erastianism: Named after the Swiss theologian Thomas Erastus, this model subordinates the church to the state, making civil authority the final arbiter in religious matters. This view was particularly evident in certain state churches of Europe.
Separation of Church and State: Rooted in Jesus’ teaching and developed in later Western history, this model emphasizes the distinct purposes of church and state. While the state governs temporal matters, the church proclaims the gospel without relying on political power.
Two Kingdoms Doctrine: Articulated by Augustine and refined by the Reformers, this view emphasizes that Christians belong simultaneously to the earthly city and the heavenly city. The earthly kingdom maintains order, while the heavenly kingdom directs ultimate allegiance to God.
These models remind us that church and state relations are never static. Each age must discern how to live faithfully under earthly governments while bearing witness to the eternal reign of Christ.
3. Augustine and the Vision of Two Cities
One of the most influential voices in political theology was Augustine of Hippo. In The City of God, Augustine contrasted the “earthly city,” defined by love of self, with the “heavenly city,” defined by love of God. While Christians live in both, their ultimate citizenship is in heaven (Philippians 3:20).
Augustine’s model shaped Christian thought for centuries by clarifying that no earthly state can ever be confused with the kingdom of God. Earthly governments are temporary, prone to corruption, and ultimately passing away. Yet they serve a real purpose in restraining evil and providing order until the final judgment.
This dual vision continues to influence church and state theology. Christians are called to engage the earthly city with justice and mercy, but without confusing temporal power with eternal hope.
4. The Reformation and Church–State Debates
The Reformation reopened the question of church and state in dramatic ways. Reformers like Luther and Calvin insisted that Scripture, not church hierarchy or civil rulers, was the ultimate authority in matters of faith. Yet their approaches to political theology differed.
Luther emphasized the two kingdoms framework, teaching that God rules the world in two ways: through the spiritual kingdom of the gospel and the earthly kingdom of the law. This helped preserve a distinction between church and state, but in practice Lutheran territories often created close alliances between princes and churches.
Calvin emphasized the mutual accountability of church and state. The state should uphold justice, but it must never dictate doctrine. The church, meanwhile, retained the right to speak prophetically to rulers. In Geneva, Calvin’s model attempted to unite civic life with Christian discipline, showing both the promise and the challenge of aligning church and state too closely.
These debates remind us that the balance between civil authority and church witness is delicate. Too much separation risks privatizing faith, while too much union risks compromising the gospel.
5. Church and State in the Present Age
For the church today, the theology of church and state remains vital. Christians are called to honor civil authorities, pray for rulers, and live as good citizens (1 Timothy 2:1–2). Yet the church must also remain distinct, refusing to compromise its message for political gain.
In modern democracies, separation of church and state has often been misunderstood as hostility toward religion. But biblically, the separation protects the freedom of the church to proclaim the gospel without being co-opted by political power. The church’s prophetic voice must remain free to critique injustice, defend the vulnerable, and remind the state of its God-given responsibilities.
Ultimately, political theology is eschatological. No matter what model of church–state relations emerges, believers know that earthly kingdoms are temporary. Revelation 11:15 declares, “The kingdom of the world has become the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ, and he shall reign forever and ever.” The church must therefore live as a witness to that final reality, even while navigating the complexities of earthly politics.
Conclusion
The history of church and state relations reveals both the opportunities and the dangers of political theology. From theocracy to separation, from Augustine’s two cities to the Reformers’ debates, the church has continually wrestled with how to live faithfully in the world while belonging to another kingdom.
Scripture provides the guiding framework: governments are ordained by God, but Christ alone is King. The church serves the world best not by grasping for political power, but by faithfully proclaiming the gospel, practicing justice and mercy, and anticipating the day when Christ’s reign will be fully revealed.
Bible Verses on Church and State Relations
Matthew 22:21 – “Render to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s, and to God the things that are God’s.”
Romans 13:1 – “Let every person be subject to the governing authorities.”
Acts 5:29 – “We must obey God rather than men.”
1 Peter 2:13–17 – “Be subject for the Lord’s sake to every human institution.”
1 Timothy 2:1–2 – Pray for kings and all who are in authority.
Daniel 2:21 – God “removes kings and sets up kings.”
Psalm 2:10–11 – “Serve the Lord with fear, and rejoice with trembling.”
Isaiah 9:6–7 – “Of the increase of his government and of peace there will be no end.”
Philippians 3:20 – “Our citizenship is in heaven.”
Revelation 11:15 – “The kingdom of the world has become the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ.”
