The Means of Atonement in the Old Testament: Sacrifice, Expiation, and Propitiation
Atonement in the Old Testament reveals the heart of God’s plan to reconcile sinners to Himself through sacrifice. From the beginning of the Mosaic covenant, God established that “without the shedding of blood there is no forgiveness” (Hebrews 9:22). Animal sacrifices were appointed to cover the guilt of Israel, providing a symbolic substitute for the death their sins deserved. Yet the prophets, psalms, and later theological debates show that atonement was never mere ritual. It pointed beyond itself—to God’s mercy, to His justice, and ultimately to Christ, the final sacrifice.
Understanding the means of atonement in the Old Testament requires careful attention to both the sacrificial system and the theological debates about expiation (removal of sin) and propitiation (turning away God’s wrath). These elements together explain why the cross is the fulfillment of all Old Testament imagery and why the Lamb slain remains central to God’s throne in Revelation 22:3.
1. Sacrifice and Blood in the Old Testament
At the center of Israel’s worship was sacrifice. The Torah presented sacrifice as the God-ordained means of atonement for sin, especially unintentional sin.
Levitical mandate – “Moses said to Aaron, ‘Come to the altar and sacrifice your sin offering… make atonement for yourself and the people’” (Leviticus 9:7).
Divine provision – God declares, “I have given [the blood] to you to make atonement for yourselves on the altar” (Leviticus 17:11).
Sanctity of obedience – Aaron’s failure to obey would bring death (Leviticus 8:35–10:2).
Sacrifice was not for “high-handed” rebellion (Numbers 15:30–31). It was God’s provision for sins of weakness and ignorance. The death of an innocent animal reminded Israel that sin brings death but that God provides a substitute.
Yet the prophets warned against empty ritual. Hosea lamented, “They offer sacrifices… but the Lord is not pleased with them” (Hosea 8:13). Micah asked whether thousands of rams or even a firstborn could satisfy God (Micah 6:6–7). Psalm 51:17 declared that “a broken and contrite heart” is the true sacrifice God desires.
The lesson was clear: atonement was never a bribe but a gift from God, pointing beyond ritual to the mercy only He can provide (Isaiah 6:7).
2. Expiation: Wiping Away Sin
One stream of interpretation emphasizes expiation—atonement as the removal or cancellation of sin. Scholars such as R. Averbeck argue that the Hebrew verb kpr often means “to wipe away, purge, or cleanse.”
Examples include:
Cleansing the altar on the Day of Atonement (Leviticus 16:20, 33).
Purging national guilt in the Song of Moses (Deuteronomy 32:43).
Removing transgression in Daniel’s prophecy (Daniel 9:24).
Expiation highlights the cleansing power of atonement. Sin is not ignored but removed, allowing the sinner to be restored to fellowship with God. This image is pastoral: guilt is washed away, and shame is lifted. Yet while expiation addresses the human side of sin’s penalty, it does not fully account for God’s holiness and wrath.
3. Propitiation: Turning Away God’s Wrath
Another perspective emphasizes propitiation—the appeasement of God’s just wrath through sacrifice. This view holds that atonement is not only the removal of sin but also the satisfaction of divine justice.
Jesus Himself confirmed this reality. He spoke of “the fire of hell” (Matthew 5:22), warned to “fear him who… has power to throw you into hell” (Luke 12:5), and declared, “Whoever rejects the Son will not see life, for God’s wrath remains on him” (John 3:36). The apostles echo this theme: “The wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness” (Romans 1:18).
Propitiation explains why sacrifice is necessary. If God is holy, He cannot simply dismiss sin without consequence. His justice demands that wrath be turned aside. The blood on Israel’s altars was a shadow of the greater reality: the Lamb of God who would bear wrath in the place of His people.
4. Expiation and Propitiation Together
The biblical witness does not reduce atonement to either expiation or propitiation alone. Instead, both belong together.
Expiation – Sin is wiped away, guilt is cleansed.
Propitiation – God’s wrath is satisfied, justice is upheld.
Together they reveal the full scope of atonement. Sin is not merely erased as though it never mattered; it is judged in a substitute. Wrath is not arbitrary anger but holy justice directed against rebellion. The sacrifice of Christ fulfills both: “God put forward Christ as a propitiation by his blood, to be received by faith” (Romans 3:25).
This dual reality explains why atonement remains essential to the Gospel. Without expiation, guilt would remain. Without propitiation, wrath would still burn. In Christ, both are satisfied, and reconciliation is complete.
Conclusion
The means of atonement in the Old Testament centered on sacrifice, blood, and God’s provision for His people. Yet the prophets and psalms made clear that ritual alone could not save. Atonement must address both the cleansing of sin and the turning away of wrath. This tension, debated by scholars as expiation versus propitiation, is resolved fully in the cross of Christ.
In the Gospel, the shadows of the Old Testament find their substance. The sacrifices that pointed to cleansing and substitution are fulfilled in the Lamb who takes away the sin of the world. Atonement, therefore, is not only about ancient rituals but about the eternal work of God to reconcile His people to Himself, secure their hope in judgment, and restore creation under His reign.
Bible Verses about Atonement in the Old Testament
Leviticus 9:7 – “Make atonement for yourself and the people, as the Lord has commanded.”
Leviticus 10:2 – “Fire came out from the presence of the Lord and consumed them.”
Leviticus 17:11 – “It is the blood that makes atonement for one’s life.”
Psalm 51:17 – “A broken and contrite heart, O God, you will not despise.”
Isaiah 6:7 – “Your guilt is taken away and your sin atoned for.”
Hosea 8:13 – “They offer sacrifices to me and eat the meat, but the Lord is not pleased with them.”
Micah 6:6–7 – “Shall I come before him with burnt offerings, with calves a year old?”
Daniel 9:24 – “To finish transgression, to put an end to sin, and to atone for wickedness.”
John 3:36 – “Whoever rejects the Son will not see life, for God’s wrath remains on him.”
Romans 3:25 – “God presented Christ as a propitiation through the shedding of his blood.”
