What are the different sects of Judaism?

Judaism in the first century was a diverse religious landscape with several competing sects, each interpreting Israel’s Scriptures, traditions, and identity in distinct ways. Although these groups disagreed about authority, purity, politics, and the future hope of Israel, they shared core commitments to the one God of Israel, the election of the people, the centrality of Torah, and the significance of the temple. Their differences shaped the environment into which Jesus came, forming the backdrop of the Gospels and the early church. Christianity itself arose as a Jewish sect before expanding among Gentiles, eventually becoming distinct from the Judaism of the period.

1. The Pharisees

The Pharisees emerged during the rule of John Hyrcanus I and became a popular lay movement among ordinary Jews. Their core features included:

• Strong emphasis on Torah study.

• Belief in resurrection and immortality.

• Acceptance of both written Torah and oral tradition.

• Commitment to ritual cleanness and faithful observance.

• Recognition of human freedom of the will.

Their oral tradition had two components: halakah (binding interpretations of moral law) and haggadah (non-binding teaching and reflection). The Pharisees often acted as an opposition party to ruling elites, particularly the Sadducees. Their influence on later Judaism is profound, as rabbinic Judaism, which developed after the destruction of the temple, stands closest to Pharisaic tradition.

2. The Sadducees

The Sadducees represented a priestly and aristocratic class, closely tied to the temple in Jerusalem. Their defining characteristics included:

• Acceptance of only the written Torah.

• Rejection of oral law, resurrection, and certain beliefs held by the Pharisees.

• Cooperation with Roman authorities for political stability.

• Prominence in community leadership and temple administration.

This alignment with Roman power and their rejection of resurrection created sharp conflict with the Pharisees. Their influence declined rapidly after the destruction of the temple in AD 70, since their identity was deeply connected to its functioning.

3. The Essenes

The Essenes withdrew from broader Jewish society due to concerns about corruption in Jerusalem’s leadership, especially the Sadducean control of the priesthood. Features often associated with Essene practice include:

• Communal living and strict purity rules.

• A high emphasis on covenant faithfulness.

• Opposition to what they viewed as a compromised temple system.

• Anticipation of divine intervention and the revealing presence of the Shekinah.

The community at Qumran, known from the Dead Sea Scrolls, is often linked to Essene tradition. It opposed the loss of the Aaronide priesthood and envisioned itself as the true remnant awaiting God’s restoration. Their writings show deep concern for holiness, eschatology, and the faithful interpretation of Torah.

4. The Zealots

The Zealots were not a major, organized sect until the revolt that led to Jerusalem’s fall in AD 70. They arose in a charged political atmosphere defined by Roman occupation, taxation, and the struggle for national identity. Their core ideas included:

• The conviction that Israel should have no master but God.

• Support for armed resistance against foreign rulers.

• Participation in the “spiral of violence” preceding the Jewish War.

Although later tradition sometimes treats them as a long-standing sect, their distinct identity crystallized during the revolt itself. Their passion for national freedom, however, reflects a broader trend of resistance visible across several Jewish movements of the time.

5. The Samaritans

The Samaritans were among the earliest Jewish sects and maintained a distinctive identity long before the first century. Their key characteristics included:

• Acceptance of only the Five Books of Moses.

• Worship centered on Mount Gerizim rather than Jerusalem.

• A separate priesthood and sacrificial system.

They considered themselves true heirs of Israel’s ancient traditions, though many Judeans rejected their claims. Their presence forms part of the New Testament background, appearing in passages such as Luke 9, Luke 17, and John 4.

Conclusion

First-century Judaism was far from monolithic. Its sects expressed competing visions of faithfulness, purity, authority, politics, and the future hope of Israel. The Pharisees shaped emerging rabbinic tradition; the Sadducees embodied temple authority; the Essenes withdrew to preserve purity; the Zealots turned to armed resistance; and the Samaritans held to an ancient, distinct interpretation of Israel’s story. Into this complex world came Jesus and the early Christian movement—a movement that began within Judaism before eventually expanding among the nations. Understanding these sects illuminates the biblical world and provides context for the New Testament’s portrayal of Israel’s hopes and conflicts.

Bible Verses about Judaism in the First Century

• Matthew 3:7, “But when he saw many of the Pharisees and Sadducees coming to his baptism, he said to them, ‘You brood of vipers! Who warned you to flee from the wrath to come?’”

• Matthew 22:23, “The same day Sadducees came to him, who say that there is no resurrection, and they asked him a question.”

• Luke 7:29–30, “When all the people heard this, and the tax collectors too, they declared God just, having been baptized with the baptism of John, but the Pharisees and the lawyers rejected the purpose of God for themselves.”

• Luke 10:33, “But a Samaritan, as he journeyed, came to where he was, and when he saw him, he had compassion.”

• John 4:9, “The Samaritan woman said to him, ‘How is it that you, a Jew, ask for a drink from me, a woman of Samaria?’ For Jews have no dealings with Samaritans.”

• John 11:47–48, “So the chief priests and the Pharisees gathered the council and said, ‘What are we to do? For this man performs many signs.’ If we let him go on like this, everyone will believe in him.”

• Acts 5:17, “But the high priest rose up, and all who were with him (that is, the party of the Sadducees), and filled with jealousy.”

• Acts 15:5, “But some believers who belonged to the party of the Pharisees rose up and said, ‘It is necessary to circumcise them and to order them to keep the law of Moses.’”

• Acts 23:6–8, “Now when Paul perceived that one part were Sadducees and the other Pharisees, he cried out in the council… For the Sadducees say that there is no resurrection, nor angel, nor spirit, but the Pharisees acknowledge them all.”

• Acts 24:14, “But this I confess to you, that according to the Way, which they call a sect, I worship the God of our fathers, believing everything laid down by the Law and written in the Prophets.”