Who Believes in Annihilationism?
The question of annihilationism requires both a historical and theological answer. Conditional immortality—the belief that the wicked will ultimately perish rather than exist eternally in conscious torment—has been affirmed by Christians across every major period of church history. While the traditional view of endless torment remained dominant, annihilationism persisted as a minority yet persistent voice from the early church to the present. The view has never been treated as heresy by the church catholic, and no one in antiquity was excommunicated for holding it. Instead, annihilationists have consistently been recognized as intellectually serious, biblically engaged Christians who interpret Scripture’s language of death, destruction, and perishing in its ordinary sense (Matthew 10:28; John 3:16). Tracing the history of the view demonstrates why it remains an active and legitimate theological position today.
1. Early Christian Writers Who Believed in Annihilationism
Before the fourth century, conditional immortality appears in several early Christian texts. These writings show that the idea did not arise from modern sentimentalism but out of close reading of Scripture and inherited Jewish expectations about final judgment.
A. Apostolic-era and early second-century voices
The Epistle of Barnabas and the Didache—two important writings from within a generation or two of the apostles—reflect a conditionalist expectation that the wicked will finally perish. These texts emphasize the “two ways,” one leading to life and the other to destruction (Matthew 7:13–14), and treat immortality as a gift granted only to the righteous (1 Corinthians 15:53–54).
B. Prominent second-century individuals
Several well-known early Christian thinkers expressed or implied some form of annihilationism:
Justin Martyr taught that immortality belongs only to those who follow Christ, implying that the wicked do not live forever.
Irenaeus affirmed eternal punishment in some passages but elsewhere described the wicked as ultimately deprived of life. He appears to have held both traditional and conditionalist elements simultaneously.
These writers were deeply committed to Scripture and orthodox doctrine, showing that conditionalism was never seen as incompatible with Christian faith.
C. Third- and early fourth-century thinkers
Arnobius of Sicca, writing around the early 300s, offered the first explicit and developed annihilationist case in Christian literature. He rejected the Platonic idea of natural soul immortality and argued that unbelievers would experience prolonged judgment before finally being consumed. Arnobius championed the biblical conviction that “the wages of sin is death” (Romans 6:23), not everlasting life in misery.
D. Diversity without excommunication
Despite differences among early church fathers—some supporting eternal torment, others annihilation—no one was ever excommunicated for their view of hell. This shows that early Christians saw the debate as a matter of interpretation, not orthodoxy.
2. Who Believed in Annihilationism After the Early Church?
Though overshadowed for many centuries by Augustine’s influence, annihilationism never disappeared. It resurfaced in powerful ways during the Reformation and post-Reformation periods and grew steadily in acceptance among evangelicals.
A. Seventeenth-century England
A number of influential thinkers challenged the inherited assumption that the soul is naturally immortal:
Gerrard Winstanley
Particular Baptist Samuel Richardson
Isaac Barrow
John Locke, the philosopher
Pierre Bayle, the critic of traditional doctrines
Their arguments often focused on the biblical meaning of death (Genesis 3:19; Ecclesiastes 9:5) and the conviction that immortality is a divine gift (Romans 2:7).
B. Eighteenth-century writers
During this period, annihilationism gained followers across multiple Christian traditions:
William Whiston, a Baptist
Marie Huber, a Reformed thinker
Thomas Burnett, Joseph Scott, William Dudgeon, and Capel Berrow
Several influential anonymous works also appeared, showing a broader interest in biblical alternatives to eternal torment.
C. Nineteenth-century theologians
The view gained momentum among mainstream Christian leaders:
Edward White, an English Congregationalist, argued that Scripture consistently teaches “exclusion from life.”
Henry Constable defended conditional immortality from biblical and theological angles.
Henry Hamlet Dobney, an English Baptist, contended that innate immortality contradicts both Scripture and reason.
In the United States, George Storrs championed annihilationism within the Adventist movement, arguing from texts like John 3:16 and 2 Thessalonians 1:9.
D. Groups influenced by annihilationism
Annihilationism became standard in the doctrine of Seventh-day Adventists and was later adopted—though in a very distinct form—by the Jehovah’s Witnesses. These groups expanded the reach of annihilationist thinking, even though their overall theology differs significantly from historic orthodoxy.
3. Who Believes in Annihilationism in Modern Evangelicalism?
Since the 1980s, conditional immortality has reemerged with significant biblical support among evangelical scholars, pastors, and theologians.
A. Influential evangelical supporters
Prominent figures who embrace or express openness to annihilationism include:
John Wenham
Edward Fudge, author of a landmark work on conditional immortality
Basil Atkinson
Richard Whately
Harold Guillebaud
F. F. Bruce, world-renowned New Testament scholar
Clark Pinnock, evangelical theologian
John R. W. Stott, one of the most respected evangelical leaders of the 20th century
Stott argued that terms like destroy, perish, and death must be taken literally unless the context clearly indicates metaphor. He also appealed to the justice of God, which Scripture describes as proportional and righteous (Romans 2:6; Matthew 11:22–24).
B. Why modern evangelicals find annihilationism compelling
Several key themes resonate with today’s biblical scholars:
The overwhelming biblical language of destruction (Psalm 37:20; 2 Thessalonians 1:9)
The conviction that immortality is a gift from God (1 Corinthians 15:53–54)
The difficulty of reconciling eternal evil with the universal reign of God (1 Corinthians 15:24–28)
The moral intuition that infinite conscious torment for finite sin raises pressing theological questions
These concerns do not arise from sentimentality but from fidelity to Scripture.
C. A legitimate, in-house evangelical view
While eternal conscious torment remains the majority view, annihilationism is now widely recognized as a valid interpretation held by believers who affirm biblical authority, the reality of hell, and the seriousness of divine judgment.
4. Why the Question Matters for the Gospel
The debate over annihilationism does not undermine the gospel but highlights it. Scripture declares that only those in Christ receive eternal life (John 17:3). Whether the final judgment ends in eternal torment or in the second death, the urgency remains:
“Today, if you hear his voice, do not harden your hearts” (Hebrews 3:15).
“Now is the day of salvation” (2 Corinthians 6:2).
Annihilationists do not make hell “less serious”—they emphasize its finality, its terror, and its permanence (Hebrews 10:27). The view preserves the hope that God will one day remove all evil from creation while upholding the reality of judgment.
5. Conclusion: A Longstanding, Biblically Motivated Tradition
The question Who believes in annihilationism? has a far-reaching answer. From early Christian writings to modern evangelical scholarship, conditional immortality has been held by respected teachers, theologians, pastors, and lay Christians. It is not a novelty, not a fringe movement, and certainly not heresy. It remains a biblically driven, historically grounded view of final judgment that deserves respectful consideration within the household of faith.
Bible Verses About Annihilationism
“The wicked will perish; the enemies of the Lord are like the glory of the pastures—they vanish like smoke” (Psalm 37:20).
“For the wages of sin is death, but the free gift of God is eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord” (Romans 6:23).
“Enter by the narrow gate… the way is easy that leads to destruction” (Matthew 7:13).
“Fear him who can destroy both soul and body in hell” (Matthew 10:28).
“The chaff he will burn with unquenchable fire” (Matthew 3:12).
“Those who do not obey the gospel… will suffer the punishment of eternal destruction” (2 Thessalonians 1:9).
“They shall be as though they had never been” (Obadiah 16).
“All the arrogant and all evildoers will be stubble” (Malachi 4:1).
“The lake of fire is the second death” (Revelation 20:14).
“The former things have passed away” (Revelation 21:4).
