Monotheism and the Divine Council
The Historical and Etymological Uses of “Divinity”
In conservative theological circles, the term divine primarily refers to God (the Trinity or the Godhead) as the ultimate, supernatural reality. But in historical usage, the term can be used to describe that which proceeds from God (like Jesus’s nature or the Holy Spirit’s work) or, in biblical contexts, figures in God's heavenly council (angels, etc.) as “divine” or “sons of God,” though these beings are clearly not God Himself. Divinity, broadly speaking, then, denotes something of God’s nature, essence, or involvement in his nature or essence, distinguishing it from mere human goodness or the gods of other faiths, while still acknowledging divine attributes in created beings, such as angels and divinized humans.
Often, the use of the terms divine or divinity to describe persons other than God raises questions about historical and biblical monotheism, particularly when referring to beings naturally divine, such as angels and other heavenly beings. The scriptures are clear that the gods of the nations are not imaginary, but fallen heavenly beings (Deuteronomy 32:8-9, Deuteronomy 32:17, Psalm 82:1-8, Psalm 89:5-7, Psalm 95:3, Psalm 97:7, Psalm 106:37, 1 Corinthians 8:4-6, 1 Corinthians 10:20) and therefore divine, yet distinct from God. Indeed, there is a clear creator-creature distinction between God and the gods of the nations; none is like Yahweh (Exodus 15:11, Psalm 86:8).
Athenatius understood divinity in this broad sense when he wrote, “For he [Christ] was incarnate that we might be made god.” He did not mean that we are made deity precisely as God is deity. Rather, Christ “manifested himself through a body that we might receive an idea of the invisible Father; and he endured the insults of human beings, that we might inherit incorruptibility” (On the Incarnation). Divinity for Athenatius, at least, means corruptible humans inheriting incorruptibility. He certainly taught much more about the divinization of humans, and this goes a long way toward illustrating my thesis. The term divinity is not reserved solely for God; it also refers to his divine creation, including the divinity the Saints enter into through sanctification, glorification, and theosis.
Divinity is not a unambiguous term reserved only for God. Scripture, classical theology, and historical usage all apply “divine” to God, to heavenly beings, and to redeemed humans in varying modes. God alone possesses uncreated divinity, while angels, elohim (broadly, all spiritual beings), and glorified humans possess a creaturely, derived divinity that in no way challenges biblical monotheism because of divine simplicity and the Creator–creature distinction. Divinity, as we will see, is uncreated in God, created in angels and recreated in humans.
The Definition of Divinity
Let’s start with a basic definition from the Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary (2003). Webster's defines divine as “relating to, or proceeding directly from God or a god.” The example is given of “divine love,” which is love proceeding from God or a god. Additionally, divinity is described as that which is deity, such as the divine man, Christ, or “the divine Savior,” meaning a Savior who is God. But the adjective can also be used to describe an activity “directed to a deity,” such as “divine worship,” in which case the one providing worship is not divine, but the recipient of the worship. Most controversial is that divine can also mean a “heavenly [or] godlike” quality that is upon a person or thing that is not itself God, such as a divine agent.
Further, the Dictionary of Latin Forms (2012) defines the term “divine” similarly as being “of a deity/god, godlike; sacred; divinely inspired” or even “prophetic,” as prophecy is considered to have a divine quality, even when spoken through human utterance. The Latin form is essential to the discussion as our English word divine comes from the Latin divinus, meaning “of a god,” and from divus, meaning “of or belonging to a god, inspired, prophetic.” It is related to deus, meaning “god, deity,” and comes to us in English through the Old French divin, with similar contextual meanings. Along these lines, the Westminster Dictionary of Theological Terms (2014) defines divinity as “Pertaining to the supreme force or power in the universe, or God.” Notice that for Westminster, as with the Latin, divinity is not merely reserved for God Himself, but that which pertains to God, as that which is appropriated as God, related to God, or applied to God.
The TDNT (1985) describes the divine as whatever bears the stamp of deity, that is, whatever reflects or participates in the power, reality, or nature belonging to God. In Greek, theios describes the predominant power, final reality, supreme meaning, or philosophical essence associated with a god or divine powers. It may also be applied to gods themselves, to cosmic forces (cf. Ephesians 6:12), or even to certain humans viewed as possessing a share in divine power (such as seers, priests, rulers, or savior-figures).
In biblical and Jewish-Christian contexts, the term can never replace the personal God. When Scripture uses language such as theios, theiotes, or theotes, it retains the confession that the one God is living, personal, sovereign, and distinct from creation. Yet, the term has a broader meaning than simply God himself. More specifically, theiotes refers to the “divinity” perceptible in creation (e.g., Romans 1:20). Theotes refers to the fullness of deity that dwells in Christ (Colossians 2:9). And theios (divine or godly) is used sparingly (e.g., Acts 17:29; 2 Peter 1:3–4). Thus, divine describes that which truly belongs to God or reflects God’s nature, without insisting that everything divine is God Himself.
The Pocket Dictionary of Biblical Studies (2002) illustrates this using the example of a “divine man,” described as “A person or spiritual leader endowed with miraculous powers manifested through miracles, healing, exorcisms, and the like.” That is, divinity is ascribed not just to God, but to those who have inherited divinity from God. For further example,
In the ancient Mediterranean world, a Neopythagorean philosopher named Apollonius of Tyana…epitomized this type of person, called a theios aner. Later exaggerations of his virtuous life and manner were often used by anti-Christians in comparing him to Jesus. When NT scholars refer to a ‘divine man christology,’ they usually focus on the miraculous powers of Jesus’ person and ministry.
That is to say, Apollonius’ divinity need not equal that of God Himself, yet it need not deny the divinity of the individual either.
God and Divinity
There’s a nuanced distinction among the various terms in the theos family. Theiotes refers to the divine nature and properties observable in nature, while theotes represents the entire essence of God. For instance, in Romans 1:20, previously mentioned Paul uses theiotes to describe God’s attributes visible in nature, and in Colossians 2:9, he uses theotes to assert the whole divine personality of the Son.
In pagan Greek literature, the use of theos differed significantly from its biblical usage. Greeks would apply the term not just to divine beings, but also to human beings, impersonal objects, and even abstract concepts (DDD, 1999). They used theos and theion to denote extraordinary or inexplicable elements, with theos eventually becoming an expression for the irrational or things seemingly exempt from human limitations.
Greek philosophical understanding further transformed the concept, spiritualizing divine forms and replacing them with abstract concepts like “world reason” or “the divine,” referring to any power that gives meaning or creates order, perhaps reflecting on the ways kings reflected the divinity of their gods, them not being in every sense gods, themselves (New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology, 1986).
In contrast, the Old Testament and Judaism maintain a monotheistic, personal understanding of God, fundamentally different from the Greeks’ abstractions. What’s important to notice here is that the meaning of divinity is expansive in Greek thought, and even in the Scriptures, it is not limited to God himself. Indeed, even for Greek philosophers, divinity wasn’t limited to merely spiritual or metaphysical realities, but could also describe subliminal natural realities.
What is The Divine Council?
As previously discussed, many Christians struggle with the broader use of the term divinity because it challenges traditional monotheism. What does it mean for “the God” to hold council among the gods (Psalm 82:1)? Isn’t that polytheism?
Traditionally, monotheism is understood as the belief in one single God, while polytheism is the belief in multiple gods. In this paradigm, each god has distinct roles, powers, and domains. Monotheism is defined by divine simplicity, where polytheism is determined by divine multiplicity. The distinction is often made between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, which are monotheistic, versus ancient Greek, Egyptian, and Hindu traditions, which are polytheistic. In monotheistic traditions, only one God is needed, so only one God is worshipped. In polytheistic traditions, many gods come together to create order on the earth, so even if there is a supreme God recognized, all are necessary and therefore all are worshiped. So what really separates monotheism from polytheism is not how many gods one believes in, but the power and necesity of deistic multiplicity for the religious system. Monotheism emphasizes deistic simplicity whereas polytheism emphasizes deistic multiplicity.
The essential problem with the traditional definitions is that the Bible doesn’t describe a cosmic reality where there is only one divine being. Neither does the Bible deny divine simplicity. There is one God defined by divine simplicity and yet many created gods or creaturely divines, as mentioned in the introduction. Indeed, divine simplicity is not opposed to a divine council and does not challenge biblical monotheism unless one assumes the attribute of divinity means equality with the Almighty God, resulting in deistic multiplicity.
So let’s address the doctrine of divine simplicity. Divine simplicity means that God is not composed of parts, constituents, or properties, but is absolutely one and indivisible. His essence is His attributes (e.g., God doesn't have love, He is love), meaning everything about God is God Himself, making Him wholly unified, unchangeable, and distinct from finite beings (consider also God’s immutability and impassibility, that he is unchanging and not given to passions). Finite beings are made of parts. Whether human or divine, the attributes of finite beings are not bound by their essence. That is, we do not love because we are love, but we love because God is love (1 John 4:19). God’s love changes us (we are mutable and passable) because we are not simple as God is simple.
Given the divine simplicity of God and what we may call creaturely multiplicity, there is no challenge to biblical monotheism if we refer to heavenly beings as divine, so long as we understand them according to their creaturely order. They are divine as they proceed from God as his divine creatures. Given this, the existence of a divine council need not challenge God’s simplicity or, by extension, His immutability and impassibility. Neither should it suggest divine creatures share in God’s simplicity, immutability, or impassibility. The Scripture is clear on this matter: the divine council is not a meeting of peers, but “the sons of God…present themselves before Yahweh” (Job 1:6). The Psalmist affirms, “God has taken his place in the divine council, [where] in the midst of the gods he holds judgment” (Psalm 82:1). This is an expression of the Almighty God presiding over, not under or among, other lesser divines. Therefore, a biblical Divine Council theology is effectively monotheistic as the Scriptures preserve God’s simplicity while presenting a creaturely (not deistic) multiplicity in the Divine Council.
