What Are the Main Differences Between Ancient Canons of Scripture?

The canon of Scripture—the officially recognized collection of inspired writings—was not identical across all ancient communities. While all traditions agreed on the central role of the Law of Moses and most of the prophetic and historical books, variations in the list and arrangement of books reveal important historical, cultural, and theological differences. These variations also shaped how the people of God read the Scriptures and understood the unfolding of the Gospel.

Examining the differences between ancient canons shows how the Word of God was received and preserved in diverse contexts while also demonstrating God’s providence in guiding His people toward the truth. This article will explore the historical background of the canons, the distinct traditions of different communities, and their theological implications for Christian faith today.

1. The Hebrew Canon and Its Threefold Structure

The Hebrew Bible, or Tanakh, was arranged in three main sections: the Law (Torah), the Prophets (Nevi’im), and the Writings (Ketuvim). This threefold division is reflected in passages such as Luke 24:44, where Jesus refers to “the Law of Moses and the Prophets and the Psalms.”

The Law contained the five books of Moses, the foundation of Israel’s covenant relationship with God. The Prophets included both historical books like Joshua and Kings and oracular books like Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, along with the Twelve Minor Prophets. The Writings contained a variety of genres, including Psalms, wisdom literature, and post-exilic narratives like Ezra and Nehemiah.

This arrangement emphasized the flow of redemptive history from creation and covenant through prophecy and reflection, ending with the return from exile—a storyline that pointed forward to the coming Messiah.

2. The Greek Septuagint and Its Expanded Collection

The Septuagint (LXX), the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, was produced for Greek-speaking Jews in the centuries before Christ. It included the same core books as the Hebrew canon but also contained additional writings such as Tobit, Wisdom of Solomon, and 1–2 Maccabees.

These additional books, later called the Apocrypha, were read in some Jewish communities for instruction and encouragement, especially in the context of persecution and cultural challenges. The Septuagint also arranged the books differently, grouping them by literary type—Law, history, poetry, and prophecy—rather than by the Hebrew threefold division.

The early church often used the Septuagint, and its inclusion of the Apocrypha influenced some Christian traditions to treat these books as Scripture, even though they were not part of the Hebrew canon.

3. The Samaritan Canon and Its Narrow Scope

The Samaritan community recognized only the Pentateuch as Scripture. This decision likely stemmed from theological and historical tensions with the Jewish community after the destruction of the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim.

By limiting their canon to the five books of Moses, the Samaritans rejected the authority of the prophets and writings that emphasized Jerusalem as the center of worship. This narrowed canon significantly shaped Samaritan belief and practice, creating a very different narrative framework from that of mainstream Judaism. It also illustrates how theological disputes can influence the boundaries of the canon.

4. The Early Christian Recognition of the New Testament

The New Testament canon developed within the first few centuries of the church’s life. Early Christians accepted the Hebrew Scriptures as authoritative and added the writings of the apostles and their close associates—Gospels, Acts, epistles, and Revelation—as the inspired witness to Jesus Christ.

By the end of the fourth century, the church widely recognized the 27 books of the New Testament. However, some books, such as Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, and Revelation, were accepted more slowly due to questions about authorship or theological interpretation. Conversely, books like the Shepherd of Hermas and the Epistle of Barnabas were read widely in some churches but ultimately not included in the canon.

5. The Divergent Canons of Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Traditions

The Roman Catholic Church, responding to the Protestant Reformation, formally recognized the Apocrypha (called the “deuterocanonical” books) as Scripture at the Council of Trent in 1546. This decision aligned with the broader canon of the Septuagint rather than the Hebrew canon.

The Eastern Orthodox Church likewise includes additional books beyond the Hebrew canon, though the exact list varies by region. These traditions regard the deuterocanonical books as part of the Old Testament, though their use in doctrinal formation has historically been more restrained than that of the universally recognized books.

6. The Protestant Return to the Hebrew Canon

Protestant reformers such as Martin Luther and John Calvin argued for a return to the Hebrew canon, excluding the Apocrypha from the Old Testament. They pointed out that Jesus and the apostles never quoted these books as Scripture and that they were not part of the canon recognized by the Jewish community.

Early Protestant Bibles, including the King James Version of 1611, sometimes included the Apocrypha in a separate section for historical reading, but later editions removed them entirely. This position reflects the conviction that the canon should consist only of books recognized as inspired in both the Jewish and apostolic periods.

7. Theological Implications for the Gospel

Differences in ancient canons are not merely historical curiosities—they shape the way the Bible’s grand narrative is read and understood. A broader canon that includes the Apocrypha may introduce themes or teachings not present in the Hebrew canon, such as prayers for the dead (2 Maccabees 12:44–45) or certain views of salvation (Tobit 12:9).

From a Gospel-centered perspective, the core storyline of creation, covenant, redemption, and new creation remains intact across all canons. The diversity of ancient arrangements shows the flexibility of God’s Word to speak across cultures, but the unity of the recognized inspired books ensures that the message of salvation in Christ remains clear and authoritative.

Conclusion

The main differences between ancient canons of Scripture involve the number of books included, their arrangement, and the traditions that recognized them. The Hebrew canon, the Greek Septuagint, the Samaritan Pentateuch, and the various Christian canons all reflect unique historical and theological contexts.

Yet despite these differences, the central message of the Gospel—God’s plan to redeem and restore His people through Jesus Christ—remains consistent. God has preserved His Word across diverse traditions, ensuring that the Scriptures remain a trustworthy guide for faith and life.